Introduction
“God is the One Who has created Heaven and Earth, and sends down water from the sky. He brings forth produce by means of it as sustenance for you. He has subjected ships to you so they may sail at sea by His command”. Al-Quran Surah Ibrahim Verse 32
Oceans have provided mankind with resources from eatables to energy, livelihood to commerce and adventure to recreation. Oceans flow over nearly three-quarters of earth surface and hold 97% of the planet’s water. Over centuries, oceans have connected civilizations and cultures and today virtually the entire world is linked through the oceans. The most prominent feature of oceans is their recognition as the easiest means of transportation of commodities. Same can be gauged by the fact that global transportation of goods by sea is approximately 10 times cheaper than rail, 45 times cheaper than road and 163 times cheaper than air. Today 90 percent of global trade is being carried out through the Sea via established sea lines of communications generally known as SLOCs.
Among the five oceans, the Indian Ocean has emerged as the epicentre of world’s economic and geo-political interests in the 21st century. Indian Ocean Region (IOR) has dynamic environment with geo-strategic importance characterized by consistent presence of extra regional forces, volatile situation in oil rich Iraq, turmoil in the Middle East and Afghanistan, US-Iran standoff, presence of two rival nuclear states, global energy security concerns, expanding piracy threat and presence of few of the world’s fastest growing economies alongside number of failing states. Where IOR environment poses serious maritime challenges in terms of regional security and stability, it also offers opportunities for Pakistan.
Importance of Indian Ocean Region
IOR extends from South Asia to 600 South Latitude and from East Africa to North West Australia which constitutes about 20% of the world’s total ocean area. The Indian Ocean is connected with the Pacific Ocean by passages through the Malay Archipelago and with the Atlantic Ocean through the Suez Canal and Cape of Good Hope.
IOR is home to 30 littorals, 11 Hinterland States and approximately 1300 Islands.1 Maritime access to and from Indian Ocean Region is through four critically important access waterways commonly called as Choke Points which are the Suez Canal, Bab el Mandeb, Strait of Hormuz and Strait of Malacca.
In economic domain, hosting one-third of the world’s population, IOR offers a huge consumer market and human resource base. 56% of the world’s proven oil and 40% of natural gas reserves are held in Indian Ocean Region, besides, being other raw materials which are crucial for industrialized countries.
In financial terms, World’s annual trade worth 1 trillion US $ passes through IOR and almost 100,000 ships transit through the region annually. On its waters are carried 67% of world’s oil shipments, half of the world’s container shipments and 35% of bulk cargo. In terms of oil transportation, around 17 million barrels of crude oil passes through Strait of Hormuz alone, which is nearly 35% of total seaborne oil trade of the world.2 In terms of oil production, Middle East provides 30% of the world’s daily oil production.3
Besides immense economic value, IOR is also facing instability and insecurity challenges. Today, 146 out of the world’s existing 345 conflicts are present in the IOR.4 In addition, IOR is infested with a number of security issues like Piracy, terrorism, drug trafficking, human smuggling and illegal immigration.
The combined effect of the IOR political and economic environment invokes convergence and divergence of interests within regional and extra-regional countries. Nations are resorting to secure their interests through collective and collaborative security initiatives and military presence.
Now interests of some of the major extra regional and regional players in IOR will be discussed.
Interests of extra regional countries in IOR are mainly economy driven and can be gauged by the fact that out of the total trade through the Indian Ocean, only 20 percent is conducted between the regional countries, while remaining 80 percent is extra-regional including US, China, Japan, EU and Russia.
USA
US concerns in the Indian Ocean region stem from their desire to prevent any power from dominating the region, support on-going military operations in Afghanistan and secure SLOCs that transit through IOR.
About 40 out of 54 important raw materials including oil, natural gas, uranium etc which fuel the United States industry are supplied by the IOR countries. It is pertinent to mention that US imports 11.8 Million barrels of oil per day, out of which nearly 20%5 originates from IOR. US interests in Indian Ocean Region extend beyond the economic domain as US maintains its freedom of action between its operational commands through Indian Ocean chokepoints to create desired effects and maintain deterrence across the oceans. US Cooperative Strategy for 21st Century Sea Power indicates a shift from Atlantic to Indian Ocean particularly Arabian Gulf. US Strategic Guidance Document of 2012 establishes China and Iran as challenge to its power projection capabilities. Moreover, it also foresees long-term strategic partnership with India to support its ability to serve as a regional economic anchor and provider of security in the broader Indian Ocean region. In order to safeguard its interests, US maintain continuous presence in IOR with at least 2 Carrier battle groups at sea and military bases at Diego Garcia, Qatar, Bahrain, Iraq, Kuwait and Afghanistan.
China
China’s phenomenal economic growth in last three decades has the potential to alter the balance of political, economic and military power in the world. For China, energy security is a vital interest, as IOR countries account for 45% of its total oil imports. Being the fastest growing economy of the world, its energy requirements are projected to increase by 150 percent by the year 2020. China’s energy security concerns can be inferred by the words of previous Chinese President Hu Jintao, “We should maintain a sound political climate favourable for ensuring energy security in international energy shipping routes & prevent geopolitical conflicts from disrupting energy supply”.
China also views Indian Ocean region as a huge market for its products. China is enhancing collaboration with IOR countries to safeguard her economic interests and generate goodwill. China’s assistance in development of ports and infrastructure in Myanmar and Sri Lanka are manifestation of her resolve.
Furthermore, the expansion of piracy has forced China to deploy naval ships far from her shores in Indian Ocean to secure her energy supply lines and protect shipping from piracy.
European Union
Prominent EU countries are also maintaining strong holds in IOR to secure their economic and geo-political interests. EU is having major trading partners in Indian Ocean region including India and UAE. Nearly 20% of EU oil imports originate from Gulf region particularly Saudi Arabia and Iran and the importance of oil shipments can be understood from the fact that US had to exempt 10 EU countries from financial sanctions on Iran. Among EU countries, UK purchases 60 percent of its liquid natural gas from Qatar. France6 has its overseas territories of La reunion and Mayotte off Madagascar. French bases in Djibouti and UAE, UK’s Maritime Component Commander in Bahrain and continuous naval presence of EU navies in Arabian Gulf and Gulf of Aden are manifestation of EU’s interest in the region.
Japan
Japan’s industry is heavily dependent on import of raw material from across the oceans and export of value added goods to global markets. Oil serves as main commodity to fuel its industry. Approximately 80 percent of Japan’s oil supply passes through Indian Ocean. Besides, building on common concern over China’s military growth, Japan in collaboration with India is also contemplating a strong mutual security cooperation framework involving safety of sea lines of communication, conduct of combined naval exercises and counter piracy cooperation.
Russia
Russia is striving to remain a major player in the global power politics. Russia still remains the biggest arms exporter to India which totals about 1.5 billion US $ annually. After the collapse of Soviet Union, Russian presence in IOR was minimal and restricted to port visits and exercises. It has recently commenced deployment of warships for counter-piracy operations in Gulf of Aden.
Interests of Regional Countries
Iran
Located astride Strait of Hormuz, Iran is an important regional player with world’s proven second largest natural gas and third largest oil reserves. IOR security remains vital to Iran in order to ensure sustained export of oil and protection of its EEZ and island territories. In wake of standoff with US, Iran is indigenously developing maritime forces, conducts patrols as far as Red Sea and holds regular naval exercises to show its resolve.
India
With a population of more than one billion, an average economic growth rate of 7-9% over the last decade and an ambitious military expansion programme, India is aspiring to become a regional power. The same is reflected in words of previous Indian Prime Minister Manmohan Singh:
“India’s growing international stature gives it strategic relevance in the area ranging from the Persian Gulf to the Strait of Malacca…. India has exploited the fluidities of the emerging world order to forge new links through a combination of diplomatic repositioning, economic resurgence and military firmness”7
Geo-Strategic Interests
While India has focused on establishing strategic ties with US, the overall thrust of its foreign policy has been to seek multi-pronged geopolitical cooperation. Moreover, India has undertaken vide range of maritime initiatives to further its influence among IOR littorals. Most significant of these are the regular conduct of naval exercises with regional and extra regional countries, security pacts with Maldives and Seychelles, establishment of communication and electronic intelligence posts in Madagascar, Defence Co-operation pact with Mozambique for joint patrolling of its coast, logistic assistance to Indian ships visiting Oman and naval collaboration with Mauritius for surveillance of its EEZ. Furthermore, IN has launched a consultative group for regional navies in IOR namely Indian Ocean Naval Symposium commonly known as IONS. IN is utilizing the IONS platform to generate a soft image of its hegemonic naval expansion, further its maritime interests and address its maritime security concerns. Such initiatives have allowed India to expand its influence in the Indian Ocean from Bay of Bengal to Middle East and South-Eastern Africa.
Economic Interests
Today India’s economic growth and prosperity are tied to resources and markets outside its borders. A substantial amount of India’s industrial and economic activity is along coastline which hosts more than 200 large and small ports and harbours. Approximately 90% of India’s trade by volume and 77% by value is seaborne. Crude oil is India’s largest import of about 100 billion USD per year. Over 70 percent of the crude oil and 90% of its LNG import is from the Middle East alone, which passes through the Strait of Hormuz mostly destined for Gulf of Kutch on its Western Coast. Gentlemen, these politico-economic developments have necessitated a paradigm shift from continental to maritime mind-set of Indian policy makers. They have realized that Indian aspirations for regional hegemony cannot materialize without development of maritime power.
Now Indian Naval Capability and its future developmental projects will be discussed.
Naval Capability and Developments
At the heart of Indian Navy modernization is the overarching goal as foreseen in 2008 by Ex Indian Naval Chief,
“Indian navy of 2020 would be capable of influencing the outcome of land battles and performing a constabulary role in the Indian Ocean region.”
This sends a clear signal of India’s maritime ambition for a blue water navy capable of projecting maritime power and influence events at sea as well as from the sea on land. To realize her strategy, Indian Navy’s budget has also seen a substantial increase. In 2012, Indian Naval budget was more than US $ 7.2 billion. In addition, Indian Navy was also allocated an amount of US $ 4.8 billion for developmental projects alone.8 The on-going projects of IN will give a clear idea of the strategic thrust and direction of the Indian Naval Development.
Surface Forces
The nucleus of Indian Naval modernization scheme revolves around the acquisition of aircraft carriers. Indian Navy inducted Aircraft carrier, ADMIRAL GORSHKOV i.e. INS VIKRAMADITYA in 2013. IN has also planned to construct three Aircraft Carriers, first of which is planned to be operational by 2017. So, by 2022, it will become second country of the world to operate three Carrier Battle groups along with 130 major combatants. Carrier Battle groups would provide IN capability to influence events not only at sea but also on land.
Naval Aviation
Indian Navy is in the process of acquiring fourth generation Mig 29K aircraft, P-8Is Long Range Maritime Patrol A/C and E2D Hawkeye by 2022. Carrier based MiG-29K aircraft will provide Indian Navy with long range strike capability. E2D Hawkeye and P8Is will enable Indian Navy to enhance maritime domain awareness in the region and will add substantially to its air power.
Subsurface Force
Indian subsurface force is also undergoing extensive expansion programme. India has plans to acquire two Akula class nuclear S/M from Russia first of which INS CHAKRA has already arrived. In addition it plans to build three indigenous nuclear-powered ballistic-missile submarines, first of which will join Indian Fleet by 2017. Overall, Indian Navy plans to have five nuclear and twenty two conventional submarines by 2022. Nuclear S/Ms will enable India to achieve assured second strike capability and reach to create strategic deterrence not only in the Indian Ocean but across the globe. Additionally, large fleet of modern S/Ms will strengthen their conventional war fighting capability manifold.
Present comparison between Pakistan and Indian Naval forces highlights that at present surface forces ratio is 1 is to 4, submarines ratio is 1 is to 3 and for aviation is 1 is to 5. These ratios are already growing in terms of power parity; however, by year 2022, there will be a substantial imbalance in conventional as well as strategic naval forces.
Indian navy’s development programme, multinational exercises, overseas deployments and naval diplomacy initiatives are indicative of India’s emerging stature as a regional maritime power.
Pakistan’s Maritime Interests
Quaid-e-Azam Muhammad Ali Jinnah while addressing Pakistan Navy officers on 23 Jan 1948 said, ‘The weak and the defenceless in this imperfect world invite aggression from others’. Pakistan, being an important player in IOR continues to contribute effectively in promoting peace and stability in the region, in the broader interest of the country and world community. Here, it becomes paramount to acquaint ourselves with Pakistan’s existing maritime interests to deal with confronted challenges and to exploit opportunities.
Seaward Defence
Pakistan has a coast line of approx 1000 Km which connects it with rest of the world. Massive Indian Naval build-up, presence of large number of Extra Regional Forces in adjacent waters and probability of maritime terrorism threat collectively signify the extent of challenges posed to Pakistan’s Sea Frontiers. Therefore, securing maritime borders is a high-priority concern for Pakistan.
Protection of SLOCs
To safeguard the economic interest at sea is another maritime interest. Over the last decade, Pakistan’s trade has gradually increased from 19.4 billion to 54 billion USD. In 2011, trade worth 50 billion USD was seaborne which accounts for approx. 95% of trade by volume and 92% by value.
Pakistan’s biggest import is POL worth 8.1 billion US dollars which constitutes 37% of the total imports of Pakistan and is dependent on sea for transportation. This is because the transport cost of oil through sea is seven times cheaper than pipeline and is the most economical option for Pakistan notwithstanding obvious security risks attached with pipelines. Thus, protection of POL SLOCs which serves as the main driver for our economy and national security is a maritime interest as disruption of same will have severe effects both during peace and in war.
Counter- Piracy Operations
Gulf of Aden, Horn of Africa and area off Somalia have become the hub of piracy since 2005. Presently, many countries are participating in counter piracy operations to safeguard their shipping and economic interests. US led Task Force CTF 151, Standing NATO Maritime Group-2, EUNAVFOR and independent naval ships from several other countries are few examples. Due to increased patrolling by warships and adoption of counter-Piracy tactics by merchant shipping, Somali Pirates have started to expand their attacks beyond Horn of Africa as far as North Arabian Sea. Therefore, it necessitates Pakistan to adopt measures individually or in collaboration with regional and extra-regional countries to counter piracy threats.
Development of Maritime Sector
Ports and harbours, merchant shipping, shipbuilding industry, off shore resources and marine fisheries are imperative for development of maritime sector so as to contribute towards overall economic growth of a country.
Ports
In maritime sector, ports act as a hub of economic activities by earning considerable revenues through shipping operations and creating employment opportunities. Rise in volume and complexity of maritime trade in Indian Ocean accompanied by increase in sophistication of merchant ships has resulted in rapid development of ports. Presently, Pakistan has three major ports at Karachi, Port Qasim and a newly built port at Gwadar. About 2800 ships enter Pakistani ports annually. In year 2011-12 the ports have contributed Rs.25 billion9 towards national economy. Ports and harbours also play an important role towards national security by providing flexibility and freedom of action to its naval forces in times of war.
Shipping
National Shipping is considered a lifeline for any nation’s trade and generation of foreign exchange. Fast growing economies of Indian Ocean primarily depend on their own flag carriers for their maritime trade. Pakistan has a fleet of 9 merchant ships out of which 3 are POL carriers. 40 % of POL and 4 % of dry cargo is carried by national carrier. Such less number of national flag carriers has increased dependence on foreign merchant ships for international trade. As a result Pakistan is spending around US$ 1.5 billion USD annually to foreign shipping companies as freight charges. In times of war this vulnerability will aggravate exponentially as foreign carriers will either refuse or will charge manifold in the shape of war risk surcharge and insurances tariffs in order to ship vital cargo. It will not be amiss to mention that during last Pakistan India stand-off in year 2008/09, Pakistan had to pay US $ 300 million as war risk surcharge just in a period of 7 months. Therefore, substantial and balanced merchant fleet is a necessity for Pakistan.
Shipbuilding Industry
Shipbuilding industry attracts foreign exchange, creates job opportunities, supports local industries and above all contributes to indigenization of defence industry. Ever increasing global maritime trade particularly in Indian Ocean has increased world ship building orders and therefore need growth of shipbuilding industry. Presently, Pakistan has only one shipyard at Karachi. To enhance shipbuilding capacity and to reduce dependence on single yard, there is a need to have another shipyard along Makran coast, capable of constructing larger vessels in line with modern trends.
Another dimension of maritime sector is the exploitation of offshore resources.
Exploitation of Offshore Natural Resources
Pakistan has a maritime area larger than Balochistan province. The vast Exclusive Economic Zone is potentially rich in untapped sea bed resources and fisheries. Asia accounts for 80 % of world fisheries and much of it is conducted in the Indian Ocean therefore making it an imperative to capitalize on the same. Last year, Pakistan fish catch of 937 thousand tonnes fetched 258 million dollars revenue in terms of export, which is around 0.4 % of GDP. Besides, this sector offers direct employment to over 1 million people.
Overall economic and military benefits attached with the development of maritime sector in terms of ports and shipping and exploitation of natural resources within EEZ make it an important interest of Pakistan.
In light of maritime interests of Pakistan, salient emerging maritime challenges and opportunities for Pakistan in contemporary IOR security environment will be discussed henceforth.
Challenges
Massive Indian naval build up in both conventional and strategic realm will cause an imbalance in power parity between Pakistan and India. To maintain a strategic balance in the region, sea based assured second strike capability is critical for Pakistan in years to come.
US-Iran standoff over nuclear issue continues to threaten regional stability and poses a serious challenge for Pakistan. Keeping in view Pakistan’s existing relations with USA and Iran and its geostrategic location near the conflict zone, a future US-Iran conflict will be a test of diplomacy for Pakistani decision makers. In the maritime domain, ensuring flow of maritime trade and shipping through Strait of Hormuz towards Pakistan will be a serious challenge. Pakistan will have to beef up the efforts for security of its maritime assets plying in Arabian Sea. Other implications include imposition of war risk surcharge, increased freight rates and insurance tariffs by shipping companies.
ERF presence in our area of operation complicates the maritime situation as its involvement in times of conflict will alter maritime threat perception of Pakistan. Pakistan at present, maintains cordial working relations with ERF through regular exercises and combined operations, thus, keep positive engagement with ERF while ensuring monitoring of own area of operation.
Expansion of piracy from HoA towards Arabian Sea has emerged as a potential threat to Pakistan’s trade, shipping and personnel. Today, average ransom per ship paid to Somali pirates has risen to US $ 5.4 million. Moreover, premium for ransom coverage by insurance companies has increased nearly 1000 percent since 2005. Thus, any successful piracy attempt on Pakistani merchant ships will have severe monetary consequences. Moreover, piracy close to our maritime frontier may provide opportunity to other regional and extra regional players to venture close to our waters on the pretext of countering piracy, thus, challenging maritime integrity of Pakistan.
Probability of maritime terrorism by non-state actors though slim, however, cannot be ruled out altogether. The effects created by any such incident near to our coast will have financial as well as security implications. Thus, use of maritime domain by non-state actors will magnify asymmetric security threat to Pakistan posing a challenge to maintain order at sea.
General lack of acknowledgement towards importance of coast, EEZ and continental shelf and economic benefits to be accrued is another challenge for Pakistan. Maritime sector has not prospered commensurate with the existing maritime potential.
Opportunities
IOR environment, besides posing various challenges also offers opportunities to Pakistan to use maritime environment to its advantage.
Pakistan’s maritime sector has enormous potential to expand and significantly contribute towards national growth. In this regard, Gwadar Deep Sea Port has enormous economic and military significance by becoming a transhipment and transit port. First phase of the development of Gwadar port has been completed but the port has not yet generated the desired dividends. Absence of modern port infrastructure and rail and road network connecting Gwadar with CARs and China are considered to be some of the major obstacles. It needs to be realised that China is focusing to develop its western provinces and requires raw materials. Presently, oil from Arabian Gulf covers a distance of 7000 NM equal to 13000km on sea and nearly 5000 KM on land to reach China’s Western provinces. On the other hand, if shipped through Gwadar it would reduce the distance to merely 2000 Km on land and would not require long sea route. This route will save significant amount of transportation costs as well as time for its shipment. In order to cash upon this enormous economic opportunity, Pakistan must develop port infrastructure on modern lines as soon as possible and develop rail and road network to link it up with hinterland states to accrue benefits in an early time frame.
Pakistan’s unexploited EEZ provides us the opportunity to tap the sea bed resources. It also has the potential of increased fish catch if attention is diverted towards development of this sector. In monitory terms, fishery sector alone has huge potential to contribute more than a billion US Dollars annually towards the national exchequer, only by introducing modern fishing trawlers and improved fish processing standards.
Karachi Shipyard is presently undertaking a number of naval shipbuilding projects, including construction of F-22 ships and Missile boat. This has rejuvenated the ageing and ineffective national asset. Continuity in warship construction provides Pakistan with the opportunity to enhance indigenous ship building capacity. Here, Gwadar being deep sea port is an ideal location for building new shipyard as it provides opportunity for construction of large ships in addition to reducing dependence on a single yard.
With the growing integration of world economy and the momentum towards globalization, Pakistan’s dependence on sea is bound to increase. Pakistan’s expanding interests at sea necessitate even greater emphasis on protection of these interests. Therefore, Pakistan Navy as an important element of maritime power not only asserts the sovereignty of Pakistan in territorial waters and safeguards its security against any threat emanating from the sea; it also protects seaborne trade and resources.
It has endeavoured to offset challenges and build upon the opportunities provided by the regional environment by active collaboration and extreme vigilance.
As international navies formed the coalition under Coalition Maritime Campaign Plan to counter seaborne maritime terrorism as part of Operation Enduring Freedom, Pakistan Navy also joined the coalition under Combined Task Force 150 in 2004. Pakistan Navy’s participation in coalition operations gives us the opportunity to accrue many benefits including countering asymmetric threat from sea, thus ensuring maritime security in the area of operation, enhancing mutual trust with ERF and regional countries, monitoring naval activity and denying Indian naval presence close to Pakistan’s waters. Furthermore, prolonged naval deployments in the Arabian Sea throughout the year projects Pakistan Navy’s operational readiness thus depicting to the adversary our actual and not the perceived capability.
In order to protect Pakistan’s shipping against piracy and maintain maritime security in the region, Pakistan Navy has joined Combined Task Force-151 in 2009. So far, PN has undertaken eleven counter-piracy deployments and has commanded the task force on two occasions. This participation provides the opportunity to PN to monitor and restrict piracy expansion towards Pakistani waters, increase cooperation with regional and extra regional navies and gain experience of operating at extended ranges from home base.
Pakistan Navy is also acting as an aid to diplomacy through regional maritime collaborations, regular conduct of bi-lateral and multilateral exercises along with port visits. Significant achievement in this regard is the holding of biannual AMAN series of exercise since 2007. 49 prominent maritime nations participated in AMAN 2011. Through these initiatives, Pakistan Navy maintains deterrence, projects positive image of the country and ensures strategic relevance in the region.
In times of conflict, the leverage provided by Pakistan’s geo-strategic orientation gives us an edge. Proximity of Gwadar port to the Gulf of Oman from where the ships have to transit to enter or exit vital Arabian Gulf provides opportunity to exploit the critical space against our adversary. Moreover, with major POL hubs and ports in reach, PN has the ability to hit the enemy where it hurts the most and with the present reach, mobility and lethality, Pakistan Navy has the capability to strike the adversary where it expects the least.
Conclusion
International and regional developments in the recent past have brought Indian Ocean to the centre-stage of global geo-politics. The presence of extra regional forces and Indian aspirations for dominance have affected the dynamics of the Indian Ocean region. The unfolding environment coupled with Pakistan’s maritime interest present range of challenges and opportunities in geostrategic, economic, and military domain, requiring diverse responses. Potent naval capability becomes indispensable to ensure defence against emerging maritime threats and safeguarding national interests. Pakistan Navy remains in pursuit of its roles of Defence, Deterrence and Diplomacy to respond to the conventional as well as asymmetric threats. Above all, it is only the naval force that has the potential to translate Pakistan’s superior strategic orientation into reality.
Pakistan Navy’s vision and resolve is reflected in the words of Chief of the Naval Staff ‘We are faced with a phenomenal naval build-up in our immediate neighbourhood, which has the potential to disturb the balance of naval power in the region. We need to ensure that this balance is redressed and naval power is not concentrated in any one centre in the Indian Ocean region.”
End Notes
1Maritime security post-9/11: challenges and response, ISSI.
2US Energy Information Administration Report, 2012.
3BP Statistical Review, June 2011.
4Heidelburg Institute of International Crime report of 2010.
5US Energy Information Administration. US Total imports are 49% of own consumption. Major oil exporting countries to US are CANADA, KSA, NIGERIA.
6Rear Admiral Jacques Launay, Joint Commander French Forces in Indian Ocean (ALINDIEN), Indian Defence Review, Date: 01 December, 2010.
7David Brewster, ‘An Indian Sphere of Influence in the Indian Ocean?’, 2.
8Janes Defence Weekly, 28 March 2012.
9Business Recorder, Sunday, 19 February 2012 and Economic Survey of Pakistan, 2010-11.
