Introduction
The principle of Time and Space helps timely concentration of a force and thus surprise is achieved for eventual success. The AJNADIN Battle (30 July 634) is a brilliant example of Time and Space and timely concentration principles applied by the Arab commander for achieving a resounding success against a well armed army that was also three times stronger in size.
The Arab force had to march for a few hundred miles through waterless and scorching hot desert. After reaching partly open area the Arabs had to encounter fortified forts and towns which they captured and continued speedy advance to contact operation to contact Arab columns (each about 3500 to 4000 strong operating in different sectors against the Roman fortified forts and towns. The column commander, on orders from the Arab commander-in-chief (Hazrat KHALID BIN WALEED) joined at the given rendezvous and the entire force continued advancing over partly undulating and rocky ground for many days to reach AJNADIN, a strategic town that was considered the centre of gravity. The Roman army was concentrated in TIBERIA, situated only 140 miles from AJNADIN but they would cover only about ten miles in a day and rest for the night. Whereas the Arab force would march day and night and cover twenty five to thirty miles in a day.
The Situation
During the 7th century the Roman empire (BYZANTINES) was the most powerful in the known world. Its rival empire was the magnificent Persian empire. Both the empires had large areas under their sway which had been captured by their well armed superior armies. Both empires had the control of strategically important border areas under their control. Arabia was divided in numerous tribes with no central government to control them. The Romans and the Persian sovereigns had desired to capture the fertile areas between the river Tigris and the river Euphrates and control the tribes residing therein. To achieve their hegemonic aspiration they had controlled large stretch of areas of IRAQ, SYRIA, JORDAN and PALESTINE.
The Jews and Christians, large number of whom were settled in Arabia, followed their own religions. But the Arabs were most worshippers of idols and stars. Each city, like each tribe had its own separate god and goddess. In Mecca was the centre of their national life, 360 idols were ranged in the holy temple of the Kaaba representing all the gods and goddesses that were worshipped by the Arabs. The Jews and Christians were mostly under the influence of the Romans and the Iranians.
Some Examples from Military History
Time and space and timely concentration are principles of war. These are adopted when the enemy is much stronger, has opened a few fronts to distribute the force of his adversary and thus force him to be weaker everywhere. Examples of military history have proved that a smaller force, after having minutely worked out the Time and Space problem (Time available distance to be covered, terrain, enemy pockets enroute) and boldly concentrated the force at the vital ground, has often defeated much stronger force and won resounding success.
Some examples from military history are mentioned below:
1. The Battle of NEHAWAND – 541 AD
Relative Strength and Plans
1. Iranian
A mentioned by various historians the strength of the Iranian army was over one lac (125000) and consisted mostly of infantry and the rest were horsemen. A few thousand chariots and some war elephants carrying archers and lancers were also part of the army. Theirs arms were superior to the Arabs. The King had presented the famous royal banner of the SASSANIAN DYNASTY (DARFISH KAIDANI) to the C-in-C because it was considered to be the symbol of victory. The troops were armed with lances, arches and swords.
All previous battles against the Arabs were fought in open areas but due to rapid outflanking movements and enveloping furious attacks by the Arab horsemen and camel drivers, the Iranians, despite their convincing superiority (often 3 to 5 times), had lost many battles. A strong fort that was situated near NEHAWAND was occupied by an Iranian force; whereas the bulk of the army occupied series of dug trenches around the fort. The chariots were kept with the counter attack force for pursuit. The war elephants were distributed for guarding the likely approaches of attack by the Arabs. For the protection of the trenches pointed iron spikes were driven into the ground particularly guarding likely approaches. The Iranians were certain that the Arabs would be lured to attack the fortified defensive position, suffer casualties, get entangled and present themselves as easy targets for their archers and lancers. The hoped the bleeding Arabs would be forced to retire in panic and therefore victory would be won.
The Iranian defence, though formidable was passive and lacked aggressiveness. The Iranians had left the initiative with the Arabs, who were provided with a ‘God Sent’ opportunity for applying the principle of ‘Surprise’ that is called the most powerful element of victory by Clausewitz.
2. The Arabs
The Arab army was about 30000 strong; it consisted of horsemen and camel riders who were armed with swords, lances and arches. The troops were brave, dedicated Muslims inspired with the spirit of JIHAD. Most of them were veterans of many battles. Their morale was high because they had won many battles against their adversaries.
Information about the enemy strength and deployment was sketchy. The advance commenced with advance guard force in front for dealing with the opposition enroute quickly. But for miles the Iranian troops were not seen or met. The people of villages and towns could only inform that a big army was present in the vicinity of NEHAWAND. The route was mostly hilly and difficult and could have been checked and delayed for days by a small enemy force.
To solve the enigma of enemy absence enroute and scanty information about the enemy concentration in NAHAWAND, the C-in-C sent two long range patrols under two trusted and bold commanders (TULAIHA and AMR IBM MADI KERIB) to collecting complete information about the strength, stronghold, deployment and mission of the enemy. They continued their advance briskly but found no enemy enroute. When they reached close to the city they, in disguise carried out thorough recce of the ground, stronghold, trenches, strength and mission of the enemy. After three days the patrols came back and provided the information to the C-in-C.
A council of war was held to discuss all factors and mostly on the recommendation of TULAIHA, the following plan was evolved:
(a) A force (under QAQAA – the fiery) to attack in extended formation to given an impression to the enemy that it was the whole Arab army. QAQAA’s force would deliberately get entangled in the defensive position and after a few hours of battle, they would slowly withdraw and entice the enemy to follow in force.
(b) The major part of the army should be divided into three forces, concentrated but hidden, 10 to 15 miles outside the defensive position of NEHAWAND. When the enemy forces in pursuit would reach striking distance the counter attack forces would suddenly attack from the flanks and rear.
The plan was bold but for success its execution required secrecy and rapidity, and gallant action throughout the battle by all concerned. Despite being numerically inferior the Arab army had decided to attack first. According to NAPOLEON ‘it is a very great mistake to allow oneself to be attacked’.
The Battle
According to the plan the gallant QAQAA with his force, under cover of arches, attacked the defensive position in extended formation and the Iranians were deceived into believing that the entire Arab army was involved. Many Arab horses and camels were wounded due to the iron spikes. A great number of horsemen had managed to jump over the enemy trenches and inflicted casualties. Some Arab camels wearing long black veils had frightened the enemy elephants and horses.
After a few hours of fighting the Arab attacking force started to withdraw, seemingly in disorder so as to entice enemy forces to follow. The Iranians felt elevated upon seeing the Arab troops withdrawing in confusion. But the trenches and iron spikes had also become hurdles for the enemy troops to advance with speed. Enemy horsemen chariots and elephants were also delayed in joining their infantry. Commanders had lost control over their troops.
QAQAA’s force continued withdrawing with speed and at midday reached open ground surrounded by hills on two sides where the counter attacking forces were hidden, ready to leap into action. On reaching the forming up position, QAQAA’s troops stood their ground and as the flank forces galloping in formation commenced attack on the Iranians who were advancing like a mole, they also joined the onslaught. The Iranians were sandwiched but a great number of them were following in the rear.
At that moment the last reserve (counter attack force) was also launched in the rear. The Iranians were trapped and a great number were killed; but some of them fought with determination. The battle field was covered with human bodies and carcasses of animals and the ground had become slippery because of the blood.
With his battle flat NOOMAN BIN MUQRAN, the C-in-C of Arab army was leading the onslaught personally and fighting those who faced him. While moving briskly on the blood stained ground his horse slipped and NOOMAN BIN MUQRAN fell down, sustaining serious head injuries but his battle flag was immediately held by his brother NAEEM BIN MUQRAN. Before he breathed his last, the valiant C-in-C was given news of victory. His Shahadat was kept secret for some time.
After their defeat the Iranians were running back to their defensive position but QAQAA and TULAIHA who were commanders of the pursuit blocked their retreat. The Iranian force in the fort also surrendered after passive opposition. Many thousand had become prisoners and an immense booty was captured. The Iranian C-in-C was killed by QAQAA while trying to escape. The hidden treasure of the Iranian King was discovered in NEHAWAND city with the help of a priest.
According to historians, a messenger was sent with news of the victory for which the Khalif HAZRAT UMAR IBN KHATTAB was anxiously waiting. On seeing the messenger the Khalif asked what news he had brought upon which the messenger gave an account of the victory and also informed that NOOMAN had embraced Shahadat. “We come from God and to God we return”, said the Khalif and covering his face with his hands, wept bitterly. The messenger, in order to console the Khalif, said “No one else whom you know personally was killed”. :The others were just poor Muslims” interposed the Khalif, “but it is no loss to them if UMAR does not know them,, for God knows them.”
King YEZDEGIRD retired to REI but was chased by the new C-in-C NAEEM IBN MUQRAN. Many other important towns were captured because the Khalif had ordered his commanders to pursue the enemy wherever they might have fled. The King fled from place to place until he was killed some years later by one of his own men. Iran thus passed under Muslim rule.
According to NAPOLEON the art of disposing of troops is the art of war, it follows that an inferior force, if corrected assembled will generally defeat a superior force. Pursuit was also relentlessly carried out for gathering up the fruits of victory. The Arab commanders and troops were dedicated Muslims, brave and inspired with the spirit of JIHAD.
The Battle of HATTIN
(HITTIN or TIBERIAS)
In 1182 AC the new Byzantine emperor came to terms with Salah-ud-Din which allowed a free hand against the Crusaders, but Sultan Salah-ud-Din, according to western historians, was a man of punctilious honour and would not take advantage. According to them (Fuller, Hitti, Lowe Poole), unfortunately among the Franks there was one to whom honour was unknown. He was REYNALD (or REGINALD) of CHATILLON, Lord of the immensely strong castle of KERAK which stood at no great distance from the Damascus-Mecca road. Although by the terms of the truce it had been agreed that both Muslim and Christian merchants could freely use this road, in the summer of 1182 AC REYNALD suddenly pounced upon a caravan bound for Mecca and pillaged it. The Sultan demanded that as the truce had been broken it would not be renewed unless compensation was paid. REYNALD refused to give up the looted merchandise and a renewal of hostilities became inevitable. In 1182 AC the Sultan was busy in an operation against Mosul when Reynald raided the Muslim convoy plying between Egypt, Arabia and India with specially built galleys. He laid siege to AILA and sacked AIDAB on the Nubian coast opposite Mecca and the ports of Medina and Mecca were pillaged. A great number of Hajis were looted and killed. This unexpected raid sent a shudder of horror throughout the Muslim world. Immediately the Sultan’s brother MALIK AL-ADIL retook AILA and destroyed the galleys, but Reynald escaped.
The Sultan vowed the Reynald would not escape his vengeance so in November 1182 AC he suddenly surrounded the castle of KERAK. On that day Princess ISABELLA was being married to HUMPHREY REYNALD and knowing that the Sultan was a generous, considerate and large hearted foe, sent a piece of the wedding cake. SALAH-UD-DIN accepted the cake piece and the nuptial tower of the married couple was respected by his archers. In view of the approach of an army from Jerusalem the siege of KERAK was lifted. In 1185 AC a truce of 5 years was agreed by both sides. The respite allowed the Sultan to carry out trade with various parts without hindrance, strengthen his hold over many Muslim amirs and make preparations for a decisive batter with the Crusaders. But in the end of 1186 AC, REYNALD treacherously upon a rich caravan on the way from Cairo to Damascus. Many Hajis also lost their lives and a great number were made slaves. It is said that the Hajis, in despair, prayed for help from the Holy Prophet (PBUH). To the Sultan’s envoy, REYNALD replied “Ask your MUHAMMAD to deliver the goods of the caravan to you.” On hearing these words the Sultan took an oath to slay the infidel with his own hand if God should ever place him in power, and proclaimed JIHAD against the Crusaders. The truce had been once again broken treacherously by the Christians and no action had been taken by the King against those responsible.
The Christian lords in the meantime made preparations to meet the challenge of the Sultan. Most of the forces were alerted to concentrate at ACRE and the remainder to join enroute as and when required. In 1187 AC the Sultan marched against KERAK to protect another caravan. At the same time he sent a force of 7,000 horsemen under his son as advance guard to cross the river Jordan to intercept the advance of the Crusaders from their forts towards his bases in Syria. An encounter took place between the advance guard and a force of the Crusaders at SEPHOREA, about 15 miles west of the lake (also called sea) GALILEE or TIBERIAS. The Sultan also hurriedly left with his main force and cross the river Jordan south of the lake and concentrated in the area of JEBEL TURAH.
As the information about the encounter was received King GUY ordered all the lords and the castles to concentrate with their forces at SEPHOREA. The crusaders also got information about the arrival of the Sultan in the vicinity of HATTIN.
In fact the ground of JEBEL TURAH was the choice of the Sultan where he wanted the enemy to fight a pitched battle. From among the chain of hills located in the west of TIBERIAS, HATTIN was the highest. The vast plateau was covered with grass and bushes only 3 to 4 miles from the lake. The entire area was undulating and for miles was stony and shade was scanty because there were few trees here and there. Between the lake and SEPHOREA-NAZARETH there was no trace of water. The shining water of the lake TIBERIAS was visible from miles.
The Sultan masked the fort of TIBERIAS with a strong screen where the wife of RAYMOND, with a force, had taken refuge. The Sultan had control of the water and his army was deployed a few miles in the west of the lake in the vicinity of HATTIN, while a cavalry force was sent ahead to watch the advance of the combined forces of the Franks from SEPHOREA.
Sultan Salah-ud-Din’s position was dangerous tactically because to his back lay the lake TIBERIAS and in case he was defeated he had no avenue of escape, but if defeated the Christians, they had no place to go but perish. The Sultan had considered all factors therefore, strategically he was successful in forcing the Christians to come out of their strong castles and fortified cities for a decisive battle in the open. His maneuver was skillful because he had drawn the enemy forces into an enclosed valley and control of water was the predominant factor in favour of the Muslim army.
According to some historians (AMIR ALI, HITTI and others) the two armies were equally matched. The Sultan’s army consisted of about 20,000 horsemen and a few thousand footmen whereas 500 camels were carrying spare arrows. The Christian army consisted of 2,200 Knights (FULLER writes 1,200), 8,000 horsemen (FULLER writes 2,000), 20,000 infantry (FULLER writes 10,000) and an ARMINIAN force of a few thousand. In the cavalry the Sultan had an edge over the enemy.
At dawn on 3rd July, the Christian forces started advancing towards the east from SEPHOREA. The day was hot and the ground, over which they were marching, was barren and stony and waterless. The advance guard of the Sultan fell in with the vanguard of GUY’s army. Soon all the water was drunk. In the evening the two armies stood face to face. The dry grass was set on fire, no sleep was possible for all throughout the night the Christian soldiers were tortured with thirst and harassed by the cavalry of the Sultan. The Sultan’s archers poured arrows upon them incessantly. The water of the lake was out of their reach.
On the morning of the 4th July the Sultan deployed his army in half noon formation. His two wings managed to encircle the Crusaders and the archers continued their missile attack ceaselessly. The Crusaders tried to break the formation of the Sultan’s army in desperation but were not allowed to break through. The hotly contested fight ended in a terrible rout as ten thousand Crusaders fell on the field and their chief leaders were either killed or captured. The Sultan’s army suffered very little casualties.
After the battle the most noble captives were brought to the Sultan’s tent. King Guy was agonized with thirst and Salah ud Din chivalrously invited him to sit by his side. The captives included GEOFFREY (brother of King Guy), REYNALD of CHATILLON (the main cause for the war), HUMPHREY, Count HUGH, son of the Lord TIBERIADE and the grand masters of the two orders. The Sultan offered a bowl of iced sherbet to King Guy who after drinking it, handed it to REYNALD, upon which the Sultan rose in anger and said, “You have not asked my leave to pass the cup to him, therefore I am in no way bound to respect his life.” REYNALD and several others who had violated the treaty and massacred Muslims, were put to death. SALAH-UD-DIN himself struck down REYNALD with his scimitar.
The castle of TIBERIADE was captured and the wife of RAYMOND was sent to her husband with every courtesy and respect; no woman was insulted and no child was hurt. Soon ACRE, NAPLUS, JERICHO, RAMLAH, CAESAREA ARSUF, JAFFA, BEIRUT and a number of other cities opened their gates.
In 1060 TUGHRIL declared war against Byzantine and drove them out of CAPPADOCIA and PHRYGIA. On the death of TUGHRIL BEG his brilliant nephew and successor, ALP ARSALAN succeeded to the overlordship of the SELJUKS because his uncle was without male issue. He was invested with the title of Sultan by the Khalifa.
The Battle of MANZIKERT
During 1069-70 the BYZANTINE forces carried out a few aggressive moves and clashed with the SULJUK forces. The Romans invaded the territory of Alepo but at no place were pitched battles fought. A large force of ROMANUS had laid siege to Khilat (Ahlat) on Lake Van but the field army that he had sent forward was defeated and the victorious TURKS poured towards ICONIUM (KONIA).
The Sultan’s brother in law, ARISIAGHI was captured by a force of Romanus and entered into alliance with the Byzantine emperor for overthrowing the Sultan who demanded his extradition. When it was refused, ALP ARSALAN moved rapidly with a force, besieged and captured MANZIKERT. ROMANUS was furious on the capture of MANZIKERT; early in 1071 he decided to advance to SEBASTE “like a cloud growling with thunder and munitioned with hail.” He collected a large army that was superior to the Turkish one; ROMANUS was confident of victory because his superior army was armed and trained. According to historians, his army was over two hundred thousand strong and all his generals had experience of fighting some battles, even against the Turks.
From SEBASTE, ROMANUS advanced on ERZERUM where after having considered all relevant factors, evolved his plan for the campaign. Since he believed the Sultan was in Persia (over 600 miles away) and would be delayed in collecting his forces, ROMANUS decided to capture KHILAT situated on the north-west bank of Lake Van and MANZIKERT. With the aim of establishing a base of operation against Persia, ROMANUS divided his army into two main forces to secure KHILAT and MANZIKERT but both were held by Turkish garrisons.
When the emperor decided to adopt his plan, the Sultan was in SYRIA (about 500 miles south-west of MANZIKERT) where he was informed of BYZANTINE forces in ARMENIA. In spite of having a smaller number of troops, the Sultan advanced with top speed by way of MOSUL and KHOI. At MOSUL the Sultan was joined by the QAZI OF MANZIKERT and some fugitives. At MOSUL the Sultan was also made aware of the latest situation. According to historians, the total strength at his disposal was between 140000 to 150000 horsemen but despite this he continued his advance towards KHOI. In the meantime, ROMANUS had captured MANZIKERT but the Sultan was not deterred and continued his advance with zeal.
At KHOI, 125 miles west of Lake VAN, the Sultan halted to collect provisions and soon continued his advance westward to relieve KHILAT. The speed of his advance guard surprised the enemy who, on 16th August retired hurriedly from KHILAT and ran back towards MALATYA. Now KHILAT was under the Sultan’s control and he, without any delay, pushed on speedily for MANZIKERT. At the same time ROMANUS left MANZIKERT for KHILAT but his advance guard was suddenly engaged, defeated and forced to retire in confusion. In spite of these setbacks, ROMANUS was so confident of victory that when the Sultan proposed a peaceful settlement of the dispute, he refused and instead demanded the Sultan to surrender his camp and promise not to make further attacks. The valiant Sultan refused and a decisive onslaught was imminent.
On or about 20th August, the emperor marched out of his camp and drew up his great army in order of battle. The wings and the reserve forces were commanded by his experienced generals whereas the Center was directly under him. The Christian priests were inciting the troops with sermons to fight the Muslims. The strength of the BYZANTINE army lay in its heavy infantry and cavalry.
The Sultan was fully aware about the superiority of the enemy but he had unflinching faith in ALLAH and was hopeful that his brave horsemen would defeat the enemy. It was Friday and the Sultan put on white robes, perfumed himself and prostrated in humility before ALLAH and with eyes wet with tears he prayed for victory. The Sultan then set aside his bow and arrows, armed himself with a sword and mace and said, “Should I be defeated, on this spot shall be my tomb.” The Turkish strength lay in light horsemen who could move with speed.
The battle was opened by the Turkish horse-archers who galloped forward and rained their arrows on the enemy troops, inflicting lot of casualties and wounding a large number of horses too. A large number of enemy troops retired in panic. The BYZANTINE cavalry charged many times but failed to check the intensity of the Turkish attacks. ROMANUS ordered the strong center of his army (which was directly under his command) to advance and attack the Turkish troops, who as per plan, carried out an organized retreat to their camp situation in the rear.
As twilight began to close, ROMANUS ordered the retreat but the Turks counter attacked furiously and their light cavalry swept round the enemy flanks and drove them out from the battle field. The Center also failed to withstand the onslaught of the Turkish counter attack.
Defeat – Tragic end of ROMANUS
At nightfall ROMANUS’ horse was killed and he was wounded and captured as a prisoner. The Center of the Roman army ran back helter-skelter but was cut down to almost a man.
The defeat was overwhelming and the Asiatic provinces of the empire were lost which deprived the empire of its best recruiting ground. The prestige of the empire was severely dented, its greatness had suffered a setback and its army was no more considered to be invincible. The dream of achieving supremacy over the Muslim world was shattered. “In the darkest hours of political Islam, the religion Islam has been able to achieve some of its most brilliant victories”. (HITTI – The Arabs).
“The Muslims were outnumbered but after a desperate and prolonged struggle, they succeeded in inflicting a crushing defeat on the Roman army.” (AMEER ALI).
Emperor ROMANUS, with his patricians, was brought to the Sultan’s camp where he was treated with the highest courtesy and respect due to his rank. A treaty was concluded between the Sultan and ROMANUS under which the latter agreed to marry his daughters to the sons of ALP ARSALAN. He also agreed to pay ransom of 1500000 Byzants (one Byzant was equal to twenty English shillings), and a yearly tribute of 360000 Byzants to be paid for a period of 50 years. Both sides released all prisoners. Emperor ROMANUS was presented a guard of honour and he proceeded to CONSTANTINOPLE.
During the short captivity of ROMANUS, CAESAR JOHN DUCAS had seized power in CONSTANTINOPLE and declared himself as the guardian of his nephew and stripped off powers from the Queen. ROMANUS collected some loyal troops and marched against the usurper but he was defeated, captured, dethroned and blinded. He died later due to his injuries but before dying he remembered the chivalrous conduct of the Sultan and as proof of his good faith, he collected a large sum and sent it by hand of one of his trustees.
Conclusion
“Therefore, to estimate the enemy situation and to calculate the distances and degree of difficulty of the terrain so as to control victory are virtues of the superior general.” SUN TZU.
Historians agree that a better equipped and more numerous army had never issued from CONSTANTINOPLE for conquest and plunder. The great military historian, GEN FULLER (in chapter 14 – The Battle of MANZIKERT, the decisive battles of the western world) has called emperor ROMANUS brave and daring but at no stage of the battle did he exercise the boldness of a general fighting a decisive battle. He was an experienced general and the terrain was also well known to him and his troops. According to NAPOLEON, a bold general may be lucky but no general can be lucky unless he is bold.
ROMANUS’ intelligence system had failed to collect information about the movement of the Sultan’s forces. He had failed to concentrate his entire army (ten times stronger) at the right time and at the right place. ROMANUS was in a most advantageous position to carry out enveloping movement, encircle the entire force of the Sultan and with constant attrition action would have completely defeated the Sultan. ROMANUS also failed to appreciate the speed of the Sultan’s light cavalry and had underestimated the generalship of ALP ARSALAN and the valour of his troops.
The Sultan was bold as a lion and executed his movements with light cavalry to achieve surprise. As a strategist and tactician he proved outstanding and while handling his troops in the battlefield he provide to be a successful general – he had moved his forces in a favourable position and moved his light horsemen at the right time and at the right place.
His mounted archers covering the flanks as well as the advance of his light cavalry had proved to be deadly shooters; they took a heavy toll of the enemy infantry and heavy cavalry. Even senior commanders, including ROMANUS, had become victim of the Turk archers.
What the Muslims gained and what the BYZANTINE empire lost as a result of this decisive battle has been briefly mentioned in the above para. Surely in the annals of military history ALP ARSALAN has earned an enviable place among the greatest captains of war.
The Kingdom of DEVAGIRI
DEVAGIRI was situated 800 miles to the south of DELHI and 600 miles to the south west of KARA. Its new name is DAULATABAD which was given by Sultan MUHAMMAD TUGHLAQ in 1328 AD when he shifted the capital from Delhi to DAULATABAD. In the north of Devagiri the Vindhya mountain was a formidable obstacle and thus for about 500 years the area behind it had remained outside the reach and grip of foreign invaders.
On the north west it was bounded by the Kingdoms of MALWA and GUJRAT and in the south two other independent Kingdoms were located. The Vindhya mountain could only be crossed through known passes/routes which were guarded and any unusual traffic was easily detected. Due to dense jungle and steep gradient it was very difficult to cross the mountain, but unfrequented routes usually used by cattle, mules and goats could be negotiated by determined soldiers and such routes had been detected, through reliable agents by the ambitious ALAUD-DIN. Enroute were the mighty rivers GUDAWARI, TAPTI and many tributaries which had to be crossed.
DEVAGIRI Fort and Army
RAMA CHANGRA was the King of DEVAGIRI. He was descendant of Lord KRISHNA and had inherited a huge treasure accumulated for centuries by his ancestors. The fort of Devagiri was situated on an isolated cone shaped hill about 640 feet high. The steep gradient and height of the hill required minimum of defences and also the high walls, bastions and a 50 feet deep moat could not be easily negotiated. It was decidedly one of the strongest fortresses of Medieval India. The King has an army of about 25000 soldiers with 50 war elephants and few thousand horses. But at the time of ALAUD-DIN’s conquest there were about 5000 soldiers present in the fort because the bulk of the army had been taken by the King’s son, SINGHANA for operation against a neighbouring state in the south. The Kind had felt so powerful and haughty that he thought that the fort was invincible. Some neighbouring states paid tribute to the King of Devagiri. Some detachments of the army were present in outposts and important communication centers.
Preparation and advance for CHANDERI
As per the Sultan’s permission ALAUDDIN made an increase in his provincial force and soldiers were specifically selected for the hazardous talks. He selected most trusted commanders, out of whom some were his brothers and loyal relatives. Special training was imparted for crossing swift rivers/streams, jungle clad terrain and steep hills. They were able to march long distances on foot and as riders for hours.
Devagiri was about 600 miles (crow flight) from Kara. The route Allauddin decided to adopt was Kara to Chanderi (220 miles via Jhansi), Vidisha (90 miles from Chanderi), Elichpur (170 from Vidisha) and Devagiri was 180 miles from Elichpur.
On 26 February 1296 AD Alauddin left Kara with 8000 horsemen. He told his commanders that they were marching out to the conquest of Chanderi but kept his real mission secret. Malik Alaul Mulk, uncle of the famous contemporary historian Ziauddin Barani, was Alauddin’s confidant in the secret project. He was appointed to look after the administration of Kara during the absence of Alauddin and send fabricated reports to the Sultan at Delhi about his movements so that the delay caused in his return would not create suspicion. Some historians wrote that even Alau Mulk was not aware about the attack on Devagiri. For the expedition he had specially selected the period between March, April and May to avoid the rainy season.
The speed of advance was fast and enroute many towns and forts were bypassed. The length of his force was about 20 miles during the advance. The vanguard was strong to deal with opposition promptly without involving the main force. In two weeks Alauddin suddenly appeared before Chanderi and after a few hours of fighting, captured it. There he stayed only to collect provisions and dashed for Vidisha and covered the distance of 90 miles in 3 days. At Vidisha he stayed for only one night and secretly selected an unfrequented and difficult route for further advance. At the same time he circulated a rumour that to remain safe from the wrath of the Sultan he was seeking refuge with the Rajas of South India.
From Vidisha the distance to Elichpur was 170 miles and the route was intersected by the rivers of Narmada, Penganga, Gudawari and many streams. Elichpur was an important trade center and the northern town of the Kingdom of Devagiri. It was defended by a strong detachment. Towns and forts enroute were bypassed and within a week Alauddin reached Elichpur. After defeating the enemy detachment he stayed there for two days for collecting provisions for his force. He made arrangements for firmly blocking all the routes going to Devagiri and here also he circulated the same rumour that he had left the Sultan for good and was seeking refuge with the Rajas of Deccan who paid tribute to the King of Devagiri. At Elichpur, Alauddin also came to know that the King’s son had marched southwards on an expedition with a big contingent as such only about 1/3 of the army would be available for the defence of Devagiri.
The Battle of Devagiri
Devagiri was about 180 miles from Elichpur and Alauddin wanted to cover this distance in the shortest possible time because the time factor was of great importance. He adopted an unfrequented and difficult route by passing towns and forts; crossing the river Penganga, climbing jungle clad heights and tackling the hills enroute with great assiduity. He managed to cross the pass known as Ghati Lajuara or Lasaura (headed by Kanha) about 12 miles west of Devagiri. The local chief hurriedly collected his troops and even women joined the fighting.
The fighting at Lasaura was bitter and according to historians, the women fought like tigresses, but eventually the local force was routed with heavy losses. Alauddin now expected a tougher fight against the army at Devagiri. He addressed his soldiers to fight the enemy with determination and daring and promised to reward their services with wealth and honour.
Devagiri was only 12 miles away. On seeing the height of the fort and steep gradient Alauddin thought it would be difficult to capture it in a few weeks. He soon occupied the town of Kataka which was situated at the foot of the fort. Over one thousand horses, 40 elephants and many influential Brahmans and merchants were captured. King Ram Chandra decided to prolong the siege in the hope of arrival of his son with a strong force. All the routes were firmly blocked by the invader and no one could come out of the fort or enter it. A few hours before the arrival of Alauddin about 3 to 4 thousand bags of food grain had been shifted to the fort and was considered sufficient for at least a one month siege. As there was no news about the arrival of Singhana, the King gave up all hope of success and sent messengers with terms for a treaty but also conveyed a few threats, reminding Alauddin about his reckless adventure and that his son would return anytime and therefore it would be wise for him to life the siege and return to Kara. He also warned Alauddin that any more delay would enable the local Rajas to unite their forces and make his return journey perilous. Alauddin also thought that whatever was offered as indemnity he would accept and return to his base at Kara. When Alauddin was preparing the details of the indemnity and the truce treaty, he was informed by his scouts that Singhana had reached with a large force and was only a few miles away from Devagiri. To ward off any surprise attack by the enemy Alauddin sent a strong force to impose delay. In the meantime, some messengers of Singhana conveyed to him that if he wanted to escape from his clutches and wrath he must hand over all the looted wealth and immediately return to Kara.
Alauddin flew into a rage at this impertinent ultimatum and ordered the messengers to be paraded in front of the enemy force with their faces blackened. He left Nusrat Khan, a daring and trusted commander with a thousand horsemen to look after the siege and forestall conjunction between the Kings and Singhana’s forces. He hurriedly deployed the remaining force to give battle to Singhana – the enemy was two and a half times stronger in strength and consisted mostly of infantry troops, some thousand horsemen and few was elephants. Alauddin allowed Singhana to commence the attack. He kept the captured war elephants in front and behind in the center kept the bulk of his horsemen. Two light cavalry forces were deployed on the wings. In a few hours the enemy horsemen from the flanks tried to surround Alauddin’s force but with counter offensive action suffered losses. The battle was tenacious, the Marathas fought furiously and in view of the superior strength of the enemy Alauddin’s situation did not look good but at that crucial time, Nusrat Khan, on his own, withdrew a small force and struck like a tempest on a flank of the enemy. This sudden counter attack created commotion within the enemy troops because they thought it was the vanguard of the Sultan’s main army, about which a rumour had already been circulated. Thereafter the entire Muslim force plucked up courage and counter attacked from all directions. The war elephants were moved forward and behind them the center force dashed upon the enemy infantry troops.
Immediately a panic seized the enemy forces and they fled pell-mell from the battle field, leaving behind the dead, wounded, many prisoners and booty. Alauddin now renewed the siege with greater vigour and paraded the captured near relatives and nobles in front of the fort. Some traitors were put to death. The King consulted his courtiers for future action and they decided to continue the struggle and wait for the arrival of the neighbouring Hindu Rajas. But on checking the supplies in the fort it was discovered that a few thousand bags contained salt, not grain. This discovery demoralized everybody and the helplessness induced helplessness. The King sued for peace.
Indemnity and return to Kara
The messengers of King Ram Chandra had confessed that the defenders were on the verge of starvation. Alauddin’s terms were harder now, demanded cessation of Elichpur and a larger was indemnity. According to the historian FERISHTA, Ram Chandra offered two maunds of gold, 1000 maunds of silver, 7 maunds of pearls, 2 maunds of precious stones (diamonds, rubies, sapphires and emeralds), 4000 pieces of silk and many other articles. Ziauddin Barani, the contemporary historian has not mentioned any such list, but has only written that Alauddin had brought so much wealth from the Deccan that despite the squandering of it by his descendants much of it remained till the time of Firoze Tughlaq. Another contemporary, AMIR KHASRU has also mentioned that a lot of wealth was brought but did not give details. Ram Chandra promised to send yearly tribute and also gave his daughter in marriage to Alauddin, who became the mother of SHIHABUD-DIN KHILJI.
Alauddin released all the prisoners and left Devagiri 25 days after he had entered it. His return journey was also adventurous because at many places he was ambushed but managed to clear the routes with immediate and bold action. The fort of Asirgarh was stormed and captured. On 2nd June 1296 AD he reached Kara with all the captured wealth; he had covered about 1400 miles of difficult journey in 72 days during which he was involved in many skirmishes and some battles.
Conclusion
The battle of Devagiri is one of the decisive battles of Medieval India. For the future Muslim invaders it opened the routes to south India which was considered arduous and even impassable. In one expedition Alauddin proved that based on complete information about the terrain and enemy capabilities, a daring plan executed with determination and valorous action would win victory despite the fact that it was carried out without the consent of the Sultan.
From the details of the expedition it is deduced that he meticulously applied the factors of Surprise and Deception, Secrecy, Speed and Offensive action. His brilliant victory struck terror into the hearts of MARATHAS and they were convinced that the Muslim soldiers and commanders were hardy, bold, superior in tactics and fighting spirit and were able to fight in far-flung hostile terrain without reinforcements and considered them invincible.
It is proved beyond doubt that Alauddin as a general has a place among the best Muslim generals who won brilliant victories in India.
The historian BRIGG’s remark on the brilliant achievement is quoted here, “In the long volumes of history there is scarcely anything to be compared with this exploit, whether we regard the resolution in forming the plan, the boldness of its execution, or the great good fortune that attended its accomplishment.”
The Battle of AUSTERLITZ
Most of NAPOLEON’s brilliant battles were fought by applying the principles of TIME and SPACE and TIMELY CONCENTRATION of forces at the Vital Ground. During December 1805 the battle of AUSTERLITZ was fought between the French Army and the Allied Army (Russia and Austria) with a strength of 90000 soldiers. At the same time about two lac Prussians were advancing from the rear to join the Allied Army commanded by Emperor ALEXANDER of Russia. Napoleon had but 70000 soldiers, his capital (base) was about 1500 miles away. From all directions the danger of arms was heard as horsemen and footmen were getting ready to finish the French Army. But Napoleon with fast movements and deployment had blacked the Prussians who were headed to join the Allied Army in the battle.
In the morning of 2nd December soon the heavy booming of artillery announced that the Russians had commenced a furious attack upon the right. All the Corps and Division commanders instantly galloped to the front. With bold impetuosity the solid columns of the French pierced the weakened center of the Allies. The conflict was desperate and most sanguinary. The allied army was pierced and cut entirely in twain. The field was filled with a rabble of fugitives flying in wild disarray as the cavalry of the Imperial Guard rode over them mercilessly. After leaving few battalions to prevent the right wing from coming to the rescue of the left, Napoleon with nearly all his force fell on the left and destroyed it. The rear of the allied army was blocked and a force was sent to overtake the fugitives running helter-skelter.
Thus terminated the battle of AUSTERLITZ. This was the most brilliant of victories of Napoleon. The loss of the Allies was immense – fifteen thousand were killed, twenty thousand were taken prisoners. 180 guns, 45 standards and an immense quantity of baggage-wagons remained the trophies of the victor.
Soon peace was established on the generous terms of Napoleon and friendship established between Napoleon and Emperor Alexander of Russia. One morning both were walking together when they passed a French sentinel who respectfully presented arms. The grenadier had a hideous saber gash extending from his forehead to his chin. Napoleon looked at the man kindly for a moment then said to Alexander, “Sire, my brother, what think you of soldiers who can survive such wounds as that?” Alexander fixed his eyes upon the wound and replied, “ And you Sire, my brother, what think you of soldiers who can give such wounds?”
The grenadier murmured in a grave voice with changing a feature of his cast-iron face, “They are all dead – they are.”
